Assassinat massiu: diferència entre les revisions
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== Referències == |
== Referències == |
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{{Referències|2}} |
{{Referències|2}} |
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==Bibliografia== |
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{{Refbegin|25em|indent=yes}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Michael Thad|year=2002|title=The Business of Genocide: The SS, Slave Labor, and the Concentration Camps|location=London and Chapel Hill|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|authorlink=Yehuda Bauer|year=1982|title=A History of the Holocaust|location=New York|publisher=[[Franklin Watts]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|authorlink=Yehuda Bauer|author-mask=3|year=1989|chapter=Rescue by negotiations? Jewish attempts to negotiate with the Nazis|editor=Michael R. Marrus|editor-link=Michael Marrus|title=The Nazi Holocaust, Part 9: The End of the Holocaust|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|pages=3–21|ref=CITEREFBauer1989}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|authorlink=Yehuda Bauer|author-mask=3|year=1998|origyear=1994|chapter=Gypsies|editor1-last=[[Yisrael Gutman]]|editor2-last=[[Michael Berenbaum]]|title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp|location=Bloomington, IN|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|pages=441–455|ref=CITEREFBauer1998}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Bauer|first=Yehuda|authorlink=Yehuda Bauer|author-mask=3|year=2002|title=Rethinking the Holocaust|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|ref=CITEREFBauer2002}} |
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: {{cite book |editor1-last=Bennett |editor1-first=Gaymon |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Ted |editor2-link=Ted Peters (theologian) |editor3-last=Hewlett |editor3-first=Martinez J. |editor4-last=Russell |editor4-first=Robert John |editor4-link=Robert John Russell |year=2008 |title=The Evolution of Evil |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3525569795 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?redir_esc=y&id=Vca7Y0VI5aAC&q=Genghis#v=snippet&q=Genghis&f=false |accessdate=July 2016 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Benz|first=Wolfgang|year=2007|title=Die 101 wichtigsten Fragen- das dritte Reich|edition=2nd|publisher=C.H. Beck |ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Berenbaum|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Berenbaum|year=2005|title=The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|isbn = 978-0801883583|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Bergen|first=Doris|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIgW79K8il8C|title=The Holocaust: A Concise History|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite journal|last=Berghahn|first=Volker R.|authorlink=Volker Berghahn|year=1999|title=Germans and Poles, 1871–1945|journal=Yearbook of European Studies|volume=13|pages=15–36|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Black |first=Edwin |year=2009 |title=The Transfer Agreement: The Dramatic Story of the Pact Between the Third Reich and Jewish Palestine |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Dialog Press |isbn=978-0914153139 |p=xiii |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Bloxham |first=Donald |year=2000 |title=Extermination through work: Jewish Slave Labour under the Third Reich |publisher=Holocaust Educational Trust Research Papers |volume=1 |issue=1 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Brechtken|first=Magnus|year=1998|title=Madagaskar für die Juden: antisemitische Idee und politische Praxis 1885–1945|edition=2nd|location=Munich|publisher=Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Breitman|first=Richard|year=1991|title=The Architect of Genocide: Himmler and the Final Solution|location=New York|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite journal|last=Browning|first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Browning|year=1986|title=Nazi Ghettoization Policy in Poland: 1939–41|journal=[[Central European History]]|volume=19|number=4|pages=343–368|jstor=4546081|ref=harv |doi=10.1017/s0008938900011158}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Browning|first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Browning |author-mask=3 |year=1992 |title=Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |ref=CITEREFBrowning1992 }} [http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf London: Penguin Books (2001)]. |
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: {{Cite book|last=Browning|first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Browning |author-mask=3 |year=2004|title=The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942|location=Jerusalem|publisher=[[Yad Vashem]]|ref=CITEREFBrowning2004}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Buchheim|first=Hans|year=1968|chapter=Command and Compliance|editor1-last=Helmut Krausnick|editor2-last=Hans Buchheim|editor3-last=[[Martin Broszat]]; Hans-Adolf Jacobsen|title=The Anatomy of the SS State|location=New York|publisher=Walker and Company|pages=303–396|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Buchholz|first=Werner|year=1999|title=Pomern|series=Deutsche Geschicte im Osten Europas|location=Berlin|publisher=Siedler|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Burleigh|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Burleigh|year=2000|chapter=Psychiatry, Society and Nazi 'Euthanasia'|pages=43–62|editor=Omer Bartov|editor-link=Omer Bartov|title=The Holocaust: Origins, Implementation, Aftermath|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Burleigh|first=Michael|year=2001|title=The Third Reich: A New History|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Burleigh|first=Michael |author-mask=3 |last2=Wippermann |first2=Wolfgang |year=1991 |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |ref={{SfnRef|Burleigh|Wippermann|1991}} }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Cesarani|first=David|authorlink=David Cesarani|year=2004|title=Holocaust: From the Persecution of the Jews to Mass Murder|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Cesarani|first=David|authorlink=David Cesarani |author-mask=3 |year=2005|title=Eichmann: His Life and Crimes|location=London|publisher=Vintage|ref=CITEREFCesarani2005}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=Robert W.|year=2010 |title=The Red Triangle: The History of the Persecution of Freemasons |location=Bungay |publisher=[[Lewis Masonic]] |ref=harv }} |
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: {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Robert W. |author-mask=3 |year=2011 |origyear=1947 |title=The Nuremberg Trial |location=London |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |isbn=978-0571272730 |ref={{SfnRef|Cooper|2011}} }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Czech |first=Danuta |year=1989 |title=Kalendarium der Ereignisse im Konzentrationslager Auschwitz-Birkenau 1939–1945 |publisher=Rowohlt, Reinbek |language=de |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Dawidowicz |first=Lucy |authorlink=Lucy Dawidowicz |year=1975 |title=The War against the Jews: 1933-1945 |location=New York |publisher=Bantam |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Dawidowicz |first=Lucy |authorlink=Lucy Dawidowicz |author-mask=3 |year=1981|title=The Holocaust and the Historians|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|ref=CITEREFDawidowicz1981}} |
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: {{Cite book|last1=Dear|first1=Ian|last2=Foot|first2=Richard D.|year=2001|title=The Oxford companion to World War II|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last1=Diamant|first1=Adolf |year=1998|title=Zerstörte Synagogue vom November 1938: Ein Bestandaufnahme|location=Frankfurt-am-Main|publisher=Selbstverlag|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Domarus|first=Max|authorlink=Max Domarus|year=2004|title=[[Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations]] ''(4 volumes)''|location=Wauconda, IL|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Ehrenreich|first=Eric|year=2007|title=The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. |location=Bloomington|publisher=Indiana University Press|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Engel|first=David|year=2012|title=The Holocaust: The Third Reich and the Jews |location=London|publisher=Routeledge|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard J. Evans|year=1989|title=In Hitler's Shadow|location=New York, NY|publisher=Pantheon|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard J. Evans |author-mask=3 |year=2005|title=The Third Reich in Power|location= New York|publisher=Penguin|ref=CITEREFEvans2005}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard J. Evans |author-mask=3 |year=2002|title=Lying About Hitler: The Holocaust, History and the David Irving Trial|location=London|publisher=[[Verso Books|Verso]]|ref=CITEREFEvans2002}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard J. Evans |author-mask=3 |year=2008 |title=The Third Reich at War |location=London |publisher=Allen Lane |ref=CITEREFEvans2008 }} |
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: {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard J. Evans |author-mask=3 |year=2015|title=The Third Reich in History and Memory | publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=CITEREFEvans2015}} |
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: {{Cite journal|last=Farbstein|first=Esther|year=1998|title=Diaries and Memoirs as a Historical Source: The Diary and Memoir of a Rabbi at the 'Konin House of Bondage'|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203134.pdf|journal=Yad Vashem Studies|volume=26|pages=87–128|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Fest|first=Joachim|authorlink=Joachim Fest|year=1999|title=Speer: The Final Verdict|location=San Diego, CA|publisher=[[Harcourt (publisher)|Harcourt]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Norman G. |date=2003 |title=[[The Holocaust Industry]]: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Verso |isbn=1-85984-488-X |ref=harv }} [http://vho.org/aaargh/fran/livres4/NFHolindustry.pdf Online edition] (retrieved June 2016). |
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: {{cite book |last=Fischel |first=Jack R. |year=1998 |title=The Holocaust |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |ref=harv }} |
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: {{cite book |last=Fischel |first=Jack R. |author-mask=3 |year=2010 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Scarecrow Press |ref={{SfnRef|Fischel|2010}} }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=Conan|year=2002|title=The Rise of the Nazis|location=Manchester|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Klaus |year=1995 |title=Nazi Germany: A New History |location=New York |publisher=Continuum |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Fitzgerald|first=Stephanie|year=2011|title=Children of the Holocaust|location=Mankato, MN|publisher=Compass Point Books|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Fleming|first=Gerald|year=1987|title=Hitler and the Final Solution|location=Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book |last=Fogelman |first=Edith |title=Conscience and Courage: Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust |year=1994 |publisher=Doubleday |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Förster|first=Jürgen|year=1998|chapter=Complicity or Entanglement?|editor1-last=Michael Berenbaum|editor2-last=Abraham Peck|title=The Holocaust and History|location=Bloomington, IN|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|pages=266–283|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Frank|first=Anne|authorlink=Anne Frank|year=2007|origyear=1947|title=[[The Diary of a Young Girl]]|location=London|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite journal|last=Friedlander|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Friedlander|year=1994|title=Step by Step: The Expansion of Murder, 1939–1941|journal=[[German Studies Review]]|volume=17|issue=3|pages=495–507|jstor=1431896|doi=10.2307/1431896|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Friedlander|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Friedlander |author-mask=3 |year=1995|title=The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution|location=Chapel Hill, NC|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|ref=CITEREFFriedlander1995}} |
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: {{Cite journal |last=Friedlander|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Friedlander |author-mask=3 |year=1997|title=Registering the Handicapped in Nazi Germany: A Case Study|journal=Jewish History|volume=11|issue=2|pages=89–98|jstor=20101303|doi=10.1007/BF02335679|ref=CITEREFFriedlander1997}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Friedländer|first=Saul|authorlink=Saul Friedländer|year=1997|title=The Years of Persecution: Nazi Germany and the Jews 1933–1939|location=London|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Friedländer|first=Saul|authorlink=Saul Friedländer |author-mask=3 |year=2007|title=The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews 1939–1945|location=London|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|ref={{SfnRef|Friedländer|2007}} }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Fritz|first=Stephen|year=2011|title=Ostkrieg: Hitler's War of Extermination in the East|location=Lexington |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Garbe|first=Detlef|year=2001|chapter=Social Disinterest, Governmental Disinformation, Renewed Persecution, and Now Manipulation of History?|editor=Hans Hesse|title=Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime 1933–1945|location=Bremen|publisher=Edition Temmen|pages=251–265|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Gellately |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Gellately |year=2001 |title=Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |ref=harv }} |
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: {{cite book |last1=Gellately |first1=Robert |last2=Stoltzfus |first2=Nathan |author-link2=Nathan Stoltzfus |year=2001 |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691086842 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1toqgWg8ROUC&q=forced+labor#v=snippet&q=forced%20labor&f=false |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Gerwarth |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Gerwarth |year=2012 |title=Hitler's Hangman: The Life of Heydrich |location=New Haven, CT |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Gilbert |year=1986 |title=The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy |location=London |publisher=[[HarperCollins|Collins]] |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Gilbert |author-mask=3 |year=1988 |title=Atlas of the Holocaust |ref=CITEREFGilbert1988 }} |
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: {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Gilbert |author-mask=3 |year=1993 |title=The Dent atlas of the Holocaust |location=London |publisher=Dent |isbn=0-460-86171-9 |ref=CITEREFGilbert1993 }} |
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: {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Gilbert |author-mask=3 |year=2002 |title=The Routledge atlas of the Holocaust |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-28145-8 |ref=CITEREFGilbert2002 }} |
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: {{Cite journal|last=Giles|first=Geoffrey J.|year=1992|title=The Most Unkindest Cut of All: Castration, Homosexuality and Nazi Justice|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=41–61 |jstor=260778 |doi=10.1177/002200949202700103 |ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book |last=Goldhagen |first=Daniel Jonah |year=1997 |title=[[Hitler's Willing Executioners|Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and The Holocaust]] |publisher=[[Alfred A Knopf]] |isbn=978-0679772682 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Goldensohn|first=Leon|authorlink=Leon Goldensohn|year=2005|title=Nuremberg Interviews|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Vintage Books|Vintage]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Gramel|first=Hermann|year=1992|title=Antisemitism in the Third Reich|location=London|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Hagen|first=William W.|year=2012|title=German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Hancock|first=Ian|authorlink=Ian Hancock|year=2004|chapter=Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and Overview|chapterurl=|url=http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=true|editor=Dan Stone|title=The Historiography of the Holocaust|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Palgrave-Macmillan]]|pages=383–396|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Harran |first=Marilyn J. |year=2000 |title=The Holocaust Chronicles: A History in Words and Pictures |location=Lincolnwood, IL |publisher=Publications International |isbn=9780785329633 |url=http://www.holocaustchronicle.org/index.html |ref=harv }} |
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: {{cite book |last=Hauner |first=Milan |year=1991 |chapter=Russia's geopolitical and ideological dilemmas in Central Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Robert+L.+Canfield,+Turko%E2%80%93Persia&source=bl&ots=O0RIaSIwvQ&sig=u_c0JK-XhwKlmY1_S5kiSq5yVoQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjn1fm73dPNAhVCzWMKHVCICPYQ6AEIOzAF#v=onepage&q=Eastern%20Legions&f=false |editor-last=Canfield |editor-first=Robert L. |title=Turko–Persia in Historical Perspective |publisher=School of American Research Press |isbn=978-1938645419 |quote=As Turkistanis they joined the so-called "[[Ostlegionen|Eastern Legions]]", which were part of the ''Wehrmacht'' and later the ''Waffen-SS'', to fight the Red Army (Hauner 1981:339-57).. The estimates of their numbers vary between 250,000 and 400,000, which include the [[Kalmyks]], the [[Tatars]] and members of the [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] ethnic groups (Alexiev 1982:33). |ref=harv }} [http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/89077394.pdf Introduction] by Robert Canfield. |
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: {{Cite book|last1=Hedgepeth|first1=Sonja M.|last2=Saidel|first2=Rochelle G.|year=2010|title=Sexual Violence against Jewish Women During the Holocaust|location=Lebanon, NH|publisher=[[University Press of New England]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book|last= Hilberg |first= Raul|authorlink=Raul Hilberg |year=1961|title= [[The Destruction of the European Jews]] |edition= First, of three, |location= Chicago |publisher=Quadrangle ([[Times Books]])| isbn=978-0300095579 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite journal |last=Hilberg |first=Raul |authorlink=Raul Hilberg |author-mask=3 |year=1980 |title=The Ghetto as a Form of Government |journal=[[Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science]] |volume=450 |p=98–112 |doi=10.1177/000271628045000109 |jstor=1042561 |ref={{SfnRef|Hilberg|1980}} }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Hilberg |first=Raul |authorlink=Raul Hilberg |author-mask=3 |year=1995|origyear=1992|title=Perpetrators Victims Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945|location=London|publisher=[[Secker & Warburg]]|ref=CITEREFHilberg1995}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Hilberg |first=Raul |authorlink=Raul Hilberg |author-mask=3 |year=1996|title=The Politics of Memory: The Journey of a Holocaust Historian|location=Chicago, IL|publisher=[[Ivan R. Dee]]|ref=CITEREFHilberg1996}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Hilberg |first=Raul |authorlink=Raul Hilberg |author-mask=3 |year=2003|title=The Destruction of the European Jews|edition=3rd|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|ref=CITEREFHilberg2003}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Hildebrand|first=Klaus|authorlink=Klaus Hildebrand|year=2005|origyear=1984|title=The Third Reich|publisher=[[Routledge]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book |last=Hillgruber |first=Andreas |author-link=Andreas Hillgruber |year=1989 |chapter=War in the East and the Extermination of the Jews |editor-last=Marrus |editor-first=Michael R. |title=The Nazi Holocaust. Part 3: The "Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder. |volume=1 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3598215544 |ref=harv }} In [https://www.yadvashem.org/untoldstories/documents/studies/Andreas_Hillgruber.pdf Yad Yashem]. |
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: {{Cite book|last=Hitchcock|first=William I.|year=2009|title=Liberation: The Bitter Road to Freedom, Europe 1944–1945|location=London|publisher=[[Faber and Faber]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Höhne |first=Heinz |year=2001 |title=The Order of the Death’s Head: The Story of Hitler’s SS |location=New York |publisher=Penguin |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Jacobs|first=Neil G.|year=2005|title=Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Jeffery|first=Keith|authorlink=Keith Jeffery (historian)|year=2010|title=MI6: The History of the Secret Intelligence Service, 1909–1949|location=London|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|year=1988|title=A History of the Jews|location=|publisher=Harper Perennial|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|editor-last=Jones|editor-first=Adam|year=2010|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction|edition=2nd|location=Abingdon|publisher=[[Routledge]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{cite book |last1=Kádar |first1=Gábor |last2=Vági |first2=Zoltán |year=2004 |title=Self-Financing Genocide: The Gold Train, the Becher Case and the Wealth of Hungarian Jews |location=Budapest |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-9639241534 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Kamenetsky |first=Ihoi |year=1961 |title=Secret Nazi Plans for Eastern Europe |publisher=New College & Univ Press |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book |last=Karski |first=Jan |authorlink=Jan Karski |year=2013 |title=Story of a Secret State: My Report to the World |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-1589019836 |ref=harv }} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Kats|first=Alfred|year=1970|title=Poland's Ghettos at War|location=New York, NY|publisher=Twayne Publishers|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Kárný|first=Miroslav|year=1998|origyear=1994|chapter=The Vrba and Wetzler Report|editor1-last=Yisrael Gutman|editor2-last=Michael Berenbaum|title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp|location=Bloomington, IN|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|pages=553–568|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|editor-last=Kennedy|editor-first=David M.|editor-link=David M. Kennedy|year=2007|title=The Library of Congress World War II Companion|location=New York, NY|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite journal|editor-last=Kermish|editor-first=Joseph|year=1968|title=Emmanuel Ringelblum's Notes, Hitherto Unpublished|journal=Yad Vashem Studies|volume=7|pages=173–183|ref=harv}} |
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: {{Cite book|last=Kershaw|first=Ian|authorlink=Ian Kershaw|year=1998|title=Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris|location=London|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Allen Lane]]|ref=harv}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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[[Categoria:Massacres]] |
[[Categoria:Massacres]] |
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Revisió del 13:59, 7 ago 2016
Un assassinat massiu o assassinat en massa és l'acte d'assassinar a un nombre elevat de víctimes, de manera simultània o en un període curt de temps. Pot ser comès per individus, per organitzacions o per un Estat.
Els majors assassinats massius de la història han correspost a intents d'extermini, basats freqüentment en conceptes o preceptes ètnics o religiosos, de grups complets o comunitats de persones. En l'actualitat, aquests actes solen descriure's com genocidis. El terme assassinat massiu es relaciona amb altres expressions com a genocidi i massacre. Encara que alguns consideren que el "genocidi" pot existir on hi ha una intenció o pla per exterminar a un grup en particular i que l'assassinat no és una condició necessària, en contrast amb "assassinat massiu" que consisteix efectivament en l'assassinat d'un elevat nombre de persones.
Assassinat massiu comès per individus
Fora d'un context polític, el terme "assassinat massiu" es refereix al fet de matar un nombre elevat de persones al mateix temps. Exemples inclourien disparar una arma de foc en contra d'una multitud en el decurs d'un robatori, o incendiar un lloc on hi hagi una multitud. Aquest és un terme ambigu, en aquest aspecte similar al d'assassinat en sèrie o "spree killing" (matança múltiple).
L'USA Bureau of Justice Statistics defineix l'assassinat massiu com aquell que implica "l'assassinat de 4 o més víctimes en un lloc i en un esdeveniment determinat".
La majoria dels assassins massius cauen dins de tres categories: aniquiladors de famílies, individus amb trastorns mentals, i treballadors disgustats.
Pel que fa al terme de treballadors disgustats, és un terme freqüentment no gaire exacte, ja que un bon nombre d'assassins massius són extreballadors que són acomiadats delm seu lloc de treball i posteriorment tornen fortament armats i maten als seus col·legues. Un d'aquests casos famosos de "treballadors disgustats" va tenir lloc en els anys vuitanta a l'empresa Electromagnetics System Labs (a Califòrnia) quan el programador informàtic Richard Farley, després de ser acomiadat per assetjament a una de les seves col·legues de nom Laura Black, va tornar a la seva antiga empresa amb diverses armes de foc matant a set dels seus col·laboradors, fallant en el seu intent de matar a na Laura.
Tal definició és evidentment caduca i no cau en la llista de fenòmens de massacres a les escoles comeses per estudiants tals com el cas de la massacre de l'Institut Columbine, on diversos joves van cometre un "assassinat múltiple " a la seva escola, matant a estudiants i mestres sense distinció abans de suïcidar-se.
També hi ha casos d'assassinats massius aparentment "no intencionals" almenys en termes de premeditació. Tal és el cas del refugiat cubà Julio Gonzales, que va incendiar el club nocturn "Happy Land" a la ciutat de Nova York després d'haver discutit amb la seva xicota i que un membre de seguretat fes fora del local (en el sinistre hi van morir 87 persones, i només va sobreviure la seva xicota ).
Alguns "assassins massius" poden tenir motius financers on el matar és per tant no una finalitat sinó un mitjà o és resultat fortuït d'un robatori, el cas més estrany és el del japonès Sadamichi Hirasawa que va enverinar amb cianur a 12 empleats d'un banc per cometre un robatori.
No obstant això, a diferència dels assassins en sèrie, rarament existeix un motiu sexual en el cas dels assassins massius, si bé es poden trobar excepcions tals com la de Sylvestre Matuschka, un austríac que aparentment obtenia plaer sexual al dinamitar trens (amb gent dins preferentment). El seu fetitxisme letal es va cobrar la vida de 22 persones abans de ser atrapat el 1932.
Segons el llibre de Loren Coleman Copycat Effect, la publicitat sobre aquestes matances múltiples tendeix a provocar més esdeveniments similars.
Assassinat massiu comès en guerra
La injusta mort d'un gran nombre de persones civils o presoners de guerra també és anomenat crim de guerra i fins i tot pot denominar-se genocidi si existeix un trasfons amb motivació ètnica, tal com va ocórrer durant les guerres índies dels blancs nord-americans[1] i la disgregació de Iugoslàvia.
Assassinat massiu comès per l'Estat
El concepte d'Estat responsable d'assassinat massiu cobreix un rang potencial de morts. Exemples clars de l'Estat responsable de massacres inclouen:[2]
- Matança del Salsipuedes a Uruguai.[3][4][5]
- Masacre de Rincón Bomba a Argentina.[6]
- Genocidi d'un grup ètnic o religiós en particular, ja sigui extern o intern a l'Estat tal com l'Holocaust[7][8] contra el poble jueu, el genocidi armeni o el genocidi de Ruanda.
- Assassinat massiu amb perfil polític en matar a un grup polític en particular dins d'un país com en el cas de la neteja ètnica empresa en contra dels tàrtars de Crimea i altres minories durant la Gran Purga de Stalin.
- Deliberades massacres de civils durant temps de guerra, és el cas de la Massacre de Nanquín (perpetrada pels japonesos contra els xinesos) o el de les bombes atòmiques (llançades per EE. UU. al Japó).
- Accions en les quals l'Estat va causar la mort d'un elevat nombre de persones a causa de desastres econòmics, com el cas de Holodomor en la Unió Soviètica en els anys 1932-1933 o el Gran Salt Endavant a Xina en 1958-1962. El fracàs de les mesures de l'estat, unit a una sèrie de catàstrofes naturals, va produir una fam que, segons la majoria de les estimacions, va provocar la mort d'entre 20 i 30 milions de persones.[9]
- Matança de Tlatelolco perpetrada el 2 d'octubre de 1968 per ordre del govern mexicà a la Plaça de les Tres Cultures de la Ciutat de Mèxic.
- Massacre de les Bananeres perpetrada el 5 i 6 de desembre de 1928 per l'Exèrcit Nacional de Colòmbia en el municipi de Pantà Departament del Magdalena
- Massacre del 22 de gener perpetrada el 22 de gener de 1967 per la Guàrdia Nacional a l'Avinguda Roosevelt de Managua, Nicaragua.
Algunes persones consideren que qualsevol mort suscitada en combat hauria de ser considerada com a assassinat massiu comès per l'Estat encara que no és una posició general.
Vegeu també
Referències
- ↑ Clavero, Bartolomé. Genocide Or Ethnocide, 1933-2007 (en anglès). Giuffrè Editore, 2008, p. 139. ISBN 8814142777.
- ↑ Aggrawal, A. «Mass Murder». A: Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine (PDF). 3. Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-12-547970-7 [Consulta: 17 març 2016].
- ↑ «Salsipuedes: grupos recuerdan la matanza charrúa», artículo en el portal de la Presidencia de la República, el 31 de marzo de 2008. Consultado el 21 de mayo de 2009.
- ↑ La masacre de los charrúas, sitio digital 'Mundo matero'.
- ↑ Fuerte polémica a 181 años de la matanza de Salsipuedes, sitio digital 'El Espectador', 11 de abril de 2012.
- ↑ Masacre de Rincón Bomba, sitio digital 'El Ortiba'.
- ↑ Snyder 2010, p. 45, Bauer 2002, Cesarani 2004, Dawidowicz 1981, Evans 2002, Gilbert 1986, Hilberg 1996, Longerich 2012, Phayer 2000, Zuccotti 1999
- ↑ Hasta la apertura de los archivos de la antigua Unión Soviética en la década de 1990, la cifra considerada por los historiadores era de por lo menos 5,5 millones; Adolf Eichmann, por su parte, había señalado a 6 millones como una probable cantidad (cf. Richard J. Evans, El Tercer Reich en guerra, pág. 409). Según las investigaciones de Michael Brenner, durante la Segunda Guerra mundial los nazis asesinaron entre 5,6 y 6,3 millones de judíos (Kleine Jüdische Gechichte, Múnich: C.H. Beck, 2008; Breve historia de los judíos, Buenos Aires: La Marca y Goethe Institut, 2011, pp. 299-300); Timothy Snyder habla de unos cinco millones cuatrocientos mil (cf. Tierras de sangre. Europa entre Hitler y Stalin, Galaxia Gutenberg-Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 2011 (or. 2010), pág. 303.
- ↑ Tao Yang, Dennis (2008). "China's Agricultural Crisis and Famine of 1959–1961: A Survey and Comparison to Soviet Famines." Palgrave MacMillan, Comparative Economic Studies 50, pp. 1–29.
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