Neolític ceràmic: diferència entre les revisions
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Revisió del 14:31, 22 març 2020
El Neolític ceràmic o Neolític tardà va començar al voltant del 6.400 aC al Creixent Fèrtil, succeint el període del Neolític preceràmic.[1] Aleshores van sorgir cultures distintives amb ceràmica, com la cultura d'Halaf (Turquia, Síria, Alta Mesopotàmia) i Obeid (Baixa Mesopotàmia). Aquest període s'ha dividit encara més, en Neolític ceràmic A (PNA, Pottery Neolithic A) i Neolític ceràmic B (PNB, Pottery Neolithic B) en alguns llocs.[2]
El període calcolític (Edat de pedra - Edat del bronze) va començar cap al 4500 aC. Després va començar l’Edat del bronze cap al 3500 aC, amb la invenció de l'escriptura, substituint les cultures neolítiques i començant el període històric.
Llevant meridional
El Neolític del Llevant meridional es divideix en les fases «preceràmic» i «ceràmic» (o neolític tardà), inicialment basades en la seqüència establerta per Kathleen Kenyon a Jericó. A la zona mediterrània, el neolític ceràmic es subdivideix en dues subfases i diverses cultures regionals, tot i que es debat el grau en què aquests representen fenòmens culturals reals:[3]
- Neolític ceràmic A (PNA, Pottery Neolithic A) o Neolític tardà 1 (LN1, Late Neolithic 1)
- Cultura Jarmukiana
- Cultura Lodiana (Jericó ix)
- Neolític ceràmic B (PNB, Pottery Neolithic B) o Neolític tardà 2 (LN2, Late Neolithic 2)
A les regions desèrtiques de l'est del Llevant meridional (Badia), tot el període es coneix com el Neolític Tardà (c. 7000–5000 aC).[4] Està marcat per l’aparició de les primeres societats pastorals al desert, que potser hi van emigrar després de l’abandonament dels grans assentaments del neolític preceràmic B (PPNB, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) cap a l’oest.[5][6]
Al sud de Nègueb i del desert del Sinaí, el neolític tardà es caracteritza per la cultura timniana, que va persistir fins a l'edat del bronze.[7]
Mesopotàmia
Els primers experiments amb ceràmica (c. 7000 aC)
Els jaciments mesopotàmics del nord de Tell Hassuna i Jarmo són alguns dels jaciments més antics de l'Orient Pròxim on s'ha trobat ceràmica, que apareix en els nivells més recents d'excavació, que daten del VII mil·lenni aC.[8] Aquesta ceràmica està feta a mà, de disseny senzill i amb parets gruixudes, i tractada amb un dissolvent vegetal.[9] Hi ha figures d'argila (zoomòrfiques o antropomòrfiques), incloses figures de dones embarassades que es consideren deesses de la fecunditat, similars a la deessa mare de les cultures neolítiques posteriors de la mateixa regió.
La cultura d'Halaf (6000–5000 aC)
La ceràmica estava decorada amb patrons i ornaments geomètrics abstractes, una característica pròpia de la cultura d'Halaf, també coneguda per les seves figuretes de fertilitat en argila, pintades amb línies. L’argila envoltava l'objecte o era el material principal; sovint les figures modelades es pintaven amb decoració de color negre. Es feien olles acurades i tenyides, sobretot gerres i bols. Com a colorants, les argiles que contenien òxids de ferro es diluien en diferents graus o es barrejaven diversos minerals per produir diferents colors.
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Fragment de ceràmica pintada; 5600-5000 aC; 7,19 × 4,19 cm
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Figures femenines, 6000-5100 aC. Museu del Louvre
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Segell i la seva impressió (motius geomètrics)
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Fragment d'un bol, 5600-5000 aC; 8,2 cm
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Fragment de ceràmica pintada, 5600-5000 aC; 3,96 × 5,21 cm
La cultura d'Halaf va veure l'aparició més antiga de segells.[10] Tenien patrons essencialment geomètrics.[10]
Les figures femenines de fecunditat en argila pintada, possiblement deesses, també apareixen en aquest període, entre 6000 i 5100 aC.[11]
Hassuna culture (6000–5000 BCE)
The Hassuna culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia dating to the early sixth millennium BCE. It is named after the type site of Tell Hassuna in Iraq. Other sites where Hassuna material has been found include Tell Shemshara. The decoration of pottery essentially consists in geometrical shapes, and a few ibex designs.
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Hassuna redware bowl, circa 5500 BCE
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Fragment of pottery with incised and painted decor. From Tell Hassuna, 6500 - 6000 BCE.
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Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)
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Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)
Samarra culture (6000–4800 BCE)
The Samarra culture is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia that is roughly dated to 5500–4800 BCE. It partially overlaps with the Hassuna and early Ubaid.
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Samarra plate, with a design consists of a rim, a circle of eight fish, and four fish swimming towards the center being caught by four birds, at the center being a swastika symbol; circa 4000 BCE; painted ceramic; diameter: 27.7 cm; Vorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin)
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Samarra period fine ware, with central Ibex motif; circa 6200-5700 BCE; Vorderasiatisches Museum
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Fragment of Samarra pottery with geometrical designs in University of Chicago Oriental Institute (USA)
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Female figurine found in the Tell es Sawwan (middle Tigris, near Samarra), level 1, ca. 6000 BCE.
Ubaid culture (6500–3800 BCE)
The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BCE)[12] is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid in Southern Mesopotamia, where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.[13]
In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium.[14] In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BCE when it is replaced by the Uruk period.[15]
In North Mesopotamia, Ubaid culture expanded during the period between about 5300 and 4300 BCE.[15] It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia.[16]
With Ubaid 3 (circa 4500 BCE) numerous examples of Ubaid pottery have been found along the Persian Gulf, as far as Dilmun, where Indus Valley Civilization pottery has also been found.[17]
Stamps seals start to depict animals in stylistic fashion, and also bear the first known depiction of the Master of Animals at the end of the period, circa 4000 BCE.[18][10][19]
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Northern expansion of the Ubaid culture after c.4500 BCE
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Jar; Late Ubaid period (4500-4000 BC); pottery; from Southern Iraq; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (USA)
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Female figurines; 4700-4200 BC; ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[21]
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Terracotta stamp seal with Master of Animals motif, Tello, ancient Girsu, End of Ubaid period, Louvre Museum AO14165. Circa 4000 BC.[18]
Diffusion
Indus Valley Civilization (5500–2000 BCE)
The Fertile Crescent in the Near East is one of the independent origins of the Neolithic, the source from which farming and pottery-making spread across Europe from 9,000 to 6,000 years ago at an average rate of about 1 km/yr.[22] There is also strong evidence for causal connections between the Near-Eastern Neolithic and that further east, up to the Indus Valley.[22] There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent.[22] The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE.[22] Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh, but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey.[22] A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia.[22] Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites.[22] The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at Ali Kosh in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran.[22] Despite their scarcity, the 14C and archaeological age determinations for early Neolithic sites in Southern Asia exhibit remarkable continuity across the vast region from the Near East to the Indian Subcontinent, consistent with a systematic eastward spread at a speed of about 0.65 km/yr.[22]
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Early Neolithic sites in the Near East and South Asia 10,000–3,800 BCE
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Mehrgarh painted pottery. 3000-2500 BCE.[23]
During the Mehrgarh Culture, precursor of the Indus Valley Civilization, Period II (5500 BCE–4800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4800 BCE–3500 BCE) were ceramic Neolithic, using pottery, and later chalcolithic. Period II is at site MR4 and Period III is at MR2.[24] Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used. Glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments. Two flexed burials were found in Period II with a red ochre cover on the body. The amount of burial goods decreased over time, becoming limited to ornaments and with more goods left with burials of females. The first button seals were produced from terracotta and bone and had geometric designs. Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles. There is further evidence of long-distance trade in Period II: important as an indication of this is the discovery of several beads of lapis lazuli, once again from Badakshan. Mehrgarh Periods II and III are also contemporaneous with an expansion of the settled populations of the borderlands at the western edge of South Asia, including the establishment of settlements like Rana Ghundai, Sheri Khan Tarakai, Sarai Kala, Jalilpur and Ghaligai.[24]
Europe
The European Neolithic is generally dated to 7000–3000 BCE. The spread of the Neolithic in Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of 14C age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available.[25] Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), thus demonstrating that, on average, the Neolithic spread at a constant speed of about 1 km/yr.[25] More recent studies confirm these results and yield the speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at 95% confidence level.[25]
Greece
Neolithic Greece is marked by some remarkable creations from stone or pottery. The settlement at Sesklo gives its name to the earliest known Neolithic culture of Europe, which inhabited Thessaly and parts of Macedonia. The oldest fragments researched at Sesklo place development of the civilization as far back as c. 7510 BCE — c. 6190 BCE, known as "proto-Sesklo" and "pre-Sesklo". They show an advanced agriculture and a very early use of pottery that rivals in age those documented in the Near East.
Ceramic decoration evolves to flame motifs toward the end of the Sesklo culture. Pottery of this "classic" Sesklo style also was used in Western Macedonia, as at Servia. That there are many similarities between the rare Asia Minor pottery and early Greek Neolithic pottery was acknowledged when investigations were made regarding whether these settlers could be migrants from Asia Minor, but such similarities seem to exist among all early pottery found in near eastern regions. The repertoire of shapes is not very different, but the Asia Minor vessels demonstrate significant differences.
The Sesklo culture is crucial in the expansion of the Neolithic into Europe. Dating and research points to the influence of Sesklo culture on both the Karanovo and Körös cultures that seem to originate there, and who in turn, gave rise to the important Danube civilization current.
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Neolithic clay cups from Sesklo, circa 5,500 BCE. National Museum Athens
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Female figurine, marble, Thessaly, 5,300–3,300 BCE
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Female figurine of a woman holding a baby, Sesklo, Neolithic, 4,800–4,500 BCE
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Sesklo culture vase
Central and Northern Europe: Linear Pottery culture (5500–4500 BCE)
The Linear Pottery culture is a major archaeological horizon of the European Neolithic, flourishing 5500–4500 BCE. It is abbreviated as "LBK" (from alemany: Linearbandkeramik), and is also known as the "Linear Band Ware", "Linear Ware", "Linear Ceramics" or "Incised Ware culture", and falls within the "Danubian I culture" of V. Gordon Childe.
The densest evidence for the culture is on the middle Danube, the upper and middle Elbe, and the upper and middle Rhine. It represents a major event in the initial spread of agriculture in Europe. The pottery after which it was named consists of simple cups, bowls, vases, and jugs, without handles, but in a later phase with lugs or pierced lugs, bases, and necks.[26]
Important sites include Nitra in Slovakia; Bylany in the Czech Republic; Langweiler and Zwenkau in Germany; Brunn am Gebirge in Austria; Elsloo, Sittard, Köln-Lindenthal, Aldenhoven, Flomborn, and Rixheim on the Rhine; Lautereck and Hienheim on the upper Danube; and Rössen and Sonderhausen on the middle Elbe.
Two variants of the early Linear Pottery culture are recognized:
- The Early or Western Linear Pottery Culture developed on the middle Danube, including western Hungary, and was carried down the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula.
- The Eastern Linear Pottery Culture flourished in eastern Hungary.
Middle and late phases are also defined. In the middle phase, the Early Linear Pottery culture intruded upon the Bug-Dniester culture and began to manufacture musical note pottery. In the late phase, the Stroked Pottery culture moved down the Vistula and Elbe.
A number of cultures ultimately replaced the Linear Pottery culture over its range, but without a one-to-one correspondence between its variants and the replacing cultures. The culture map, instead, is complex. Some of the successor cultures are the Hinkelstein, Großgartach, Rössen, Lengyel, Cucuteni-Trypillian, and Boian-Maritza cultures.
The Neolithic period in Europe was succeeded by the Bronze Age, circa 3000 BCE.
Cronologia comparativa
Referències
- ↑ Bellwood, 2004.
- ↑ Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet; Goring-Morris, A. Nigel; Belfer-Cohen, Anna. «The Southern Levant (Cisjordan) During the Neolithic Period». A: The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (en anglès), 1 de novembre de 2013. DOI 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199212972.013.011. ISBN 9780199212972.
- ↑ Goring-Morris, A. Nigel; Belfer-Cohen, Anna. «The Nature of the Beast: The Late Neolithic in the Southern Levant». A: Concluding the Neolithic: The Near East in the Second Half of the Seventh Millennium BCE (en anglès). Lockwood Press, 2019, p. 61–76. ISBN 9781937040840.
- ↑ Betts, Alison «The Neolithic sequence in the East Jordan Badia. A preliminary overview» (en anglès). Paléorient, 19(1), 1993, pàg. 43–53. DOI: 10.3406/paleo.1993.4582.
- ↑ Rollefson, Gary; Rowan, Yorke; Wasse, Alexander «The Late Neolithic colonization of the Eastern Badia of Jordan» (en anglès). Levant, 46(2), 2014, pàg. 285–301. DOI: 10.1179/0075891414Z.00000000046. ISSN: 0075-8914.
- ↑ Rowan, Yorke M.; Rollefson, Gary; Wasse, Alexander; Hill, Austin “Chad”; Kersel, Morag M. «The Late Neolithic Presence in the Black Desert» (en anglès). Near Eastern Archaeology, 80(2), 2017, pàg. 102–113. DOI: 10.5615/neareastarch.80.2.0102. ISSN: 1094-2076.
- ↑ Rosen, Steven A. «Desert Chronologies and Periodization Systems». A: Culture, Chronology and the Chalcolithic: Theory and Transition (en anglès). Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2011, p. 71–83. ISBN 978-1-84217-993-2.
- ↑ Maisels, Charles Keith. The Emergence of Civilisation: From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities and the State of the Near East (en anglès). Routledge, 2003, p. 104–105. ISBN 9781134863280.
- ↑ For Jarmo pottery photograph, see «A Dish from the Jarmo Culture» (en anglès). Ancient History Encyclopedia.
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art (en anglès). Walter de Gruyter, 2013. ISBN 9781614510352.
- ↑ «Figurines féminines du style de Halaf» (en francès). Museu del Louvre.
- ↑ Carter, Robert A; Philip, Graham. «Radiometric data suggest that the whole Southern Mesopotamian Ubaid period, including Ubaid 0 and 5, is of immense duration, spanning nearly three millennia from about 6500 to 3800 B.C.». A: Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Number 63) (en anglès). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010, p. 2. ISBN 978-1-885923-66-0.
- ↑ Hall, Henry R; Woolley, C. Leonard. Al-'Ubaid. Ur Excavations 1 (en anglès). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927.
- ↑ Adams, Robert MCC. and Wright, Henry T. 1989. 'Concluding Remarks' in Henrickson, Elizabeth and Thuesen, Ingolf (eds.) Upon This Foundation – The ’Ubaid Reconsidered. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 451–456.
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham. 2010. 'Deconstructing the Ubaid' in Carter, Robert A. and Philip, Graham (eds.) Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 2.
- ↑ Pollock, Susan; Bernbeck, Reinhard. Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical Perspectives (en anglès), 2009, p. 190. ISBN 9781405137232.
- ↑ Stiebing, William H, Jr. Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture (en anglès). Routledge, 2016, p. 85. ISBN 9781315511160.
- ↑ 18,0 18,1 «Cachet plat. Représentation du maître des animaux» (en anglès). Museu del Louvre.
- ↑ Charvát, Petr. Mesopotamia Before History (en anglès). Routledge, 2003, p. 96. ISBN 9781134530779.
- ↑ «Tesson décor de bouquetin» (en francès). Museu del Louvre.
- ↑ «Figurine féminine d'Obeid» (en francès). Museu del Louvre, 2019.
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 22,2 22,3 22,4 22,5 22,6 22,7 22,8 Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita «The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia» (en anglès). PLOS ONE, 9(5), 07-05-2014, pàg. e95714. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN: 1932-6203. PMC: 4012948. PMID: 24806472.
- ↑ «Vessel». Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ↑ 24,0 24,1 Sharif, M; Thapar, B. K.. «Food-producing Communities in Pakistan and Northern India». A: History of civilizations of Central Asia (en anglès). Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, p. 128–137. ISBN 978-81-208-1407-3.
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 25,2 Original text from: Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita «The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia» (en anglès). PLOS ONE, 9(5), 2014, pàg. e95714. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. PMC: 4012948. PMID: 24806472.
- ↑ 26,0 26,1 Hibben, p. 121.
- ↑ Liverani, Mario. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy (en anglès). Routledge, 2013, p. 13, Taula 1.1 "Chronology of the Ancient Near East". ISBN 9781134750917.
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita «The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia» (en anglès). PLOS One, 9 (5), 07-05-2014, pàg. e95714. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...995714G. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN: 1932-6203. PMC: 4012948. PMID: 24806472.
- ↑ Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Arpin, Trina; Pan, Yan; Cohen, David; et al. «Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China» (en anglès). Science, 336(6089), 29-06-2012, pàg. 1696-1700. Bibcode: 2012Sci...336.1696W. DOI: 10.1126/science.1218643. ISSN: 0036-8075. PMID: 22745428.
- ↑ Thorpe, I. J.. The Origins of Agriculture in Europe (en anglès). Routledge, 2003, p. 14. ISBN 9781134620104.
- ↑ Price, T. Douglas. Europe's First Farmers (en anglès). Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 3. ISBN 9780521665728.
- ↑ Stiebing, William H. (Jr); Helft, Susan N. Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture (en anglès). Routledge, 2017, p. 25. ISBN 9781134880836.
Bibliografia
- Bellwood, Peter. First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (en anglès). Wiley-Blackwell, 30 de novembre de 2004. ISBN 978-0-631-20566-1.
- Hibben, Frank. Prehistoric Man in Europe (en anglès). Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958.